John Cassian, Diabolical Warfare, and Psychological Health

“Then Jesus was led up by the Spirit into the wilderness to be tempted by the Devil.”

Mark 4:1

John Cassian, an ascetic monk and writer of the fourth and fifth centuries, spent time in the Egyptian desert transmitting the stories and experiences of Egyptian monasticism to the West.[1] His writings, composed in Latin, were quickly translated into Greek to reach an even wider audience. Specifically, some of the stories from his writings were included in the well-known Apophthegmata, known as the Sayings of the Desert Fathers.[2] This personality of the early Church relayed eyewitness accounts of the monastic life in Scetis, of which very little was contemporaneously documented.[3] John Cassian’s writings on the diabolical warfare experienced in early Egyptian monasticism introduced principles and concepts that relate to various struggles impacting the psychological health of many in today’s world.

The Holy Scriptures are filled with accounts of demonic attacks on many individuals throughout the Old and New Testament, including the Lord Jesus Christ Himself.[4] Specifically, the book of Job narrates a vivid diabolic attack that led to Job losing his family and possessions.[5] Paul the Apostle also documented the demonic oppression that he experienced, stating that a “messenger of Satan” harassed him.[6] Diabolical warfare did not cease with the accounts of the Holy Scriptures, but rather was all the more witnessed, experienced, and documented in the lives of many Egyptian Desert Fathers and Mothers; not least in the writings of John Cassian.

In discussing monastic diabolical warfare, one must first begin with the founder of traditional Egyptian Monasticism, Antony the Great. In the Life of Antony, written by Athanasius the Apostolic,[7] demonic attacks and warfare were documented in great detail. Many severe attacks were experienced by Antony,[8] beginning firstly with his thoughts; when this was to no avail, the demons then proceeded to attack the monk physically as well.[9] Furthermore, in the Paradise of the Holy Fathers,[10] one finds other accounts of demonic attacks against many of the monks, specifically the solitary Evagrius.[11] A contemporary of John Cassian, Evagrius[12] was a monastic who also wrote extensively on the prayer life and wrote volumes outlining the various snares of the devil.[13] It is this Evagrius whose demonology was an influence on the life and writings of John Cassian.

Cassian’s writings were utilized by the Rule of Saint Benedict[14] in the West.[15] Evagrius laid the foundation of monastic writings which Cassian is said to have expounded, synthesized, and relayed to the West. Cassian mingled the teachings of the East with the spirit of the West, providing a practical approach and understanding to those who may have been naïve to or unfamiliar with the idea of diabolical warfare.[16] Thus it is said that Evagrius deserves credit, albeit indirectly, for the spread of monasticism and monastic teaching in the West through the vessel that is John Cassian.[17] Evagrius spoke in depth regarding the mysticism of diabolical warfare, including about demons and their interaction with humans, whereas Cassian spoke in more detail with regard to vices and the warfare between the flesh and spirit of the monk.[18] This bridge — between the demonic and the inner struggle — was relayed in Cassian’s writings. Evagrius was therefore said to be of significance to monasticism in the West.[19] Cassian’s further expansion on Evagrius’ demonology served as the foundation of the application of principles relevant to or arising from diabolical warfare to the inner struggles of the thoughts and emotions. This formed the basis for many of the psychological ideologies that were to be formalized thereafter.

Cassian was born in the middle of the fourth century, and it is unclear where his birthplace was, though some believe it to have been Gaul (present day France).[20] He spent time in Palestine and Egypt, the latter being where he famously wrote his monastic writings that were to be transmitted to the people of Gaul.[21] One of his writings was written to Castor, a local bishop of the region, describing the monastic system of Egypt so that it might be imitated in the West.[22] After his time as a monastic, Cassian became a disciple of John Chrysostom, who vouched for him to be sent to Rome after his deposition.[23] Cassian and his friend Germanus, who journeyed with him on his monastic voyage, spent close to fifteen years in the Egyptian Desert, specifically in Scetis.[24] It is during this time that Cassian wrote his two major literary eyewitness works of the Egyptian monastic life and struggle.

John Cassian’s two main literary works are The Conferences of the Desert Fathers and The Twelve Books on the Institutes of the Coenobia and the Remedies for the Eight Principal Faults.[25] In both the Conferences and the Institutes, eight spirits or principal faults, which represent the demonic attacks that plagued the Egyptian monks, are mentioned. The Conferences consist of counsels and dialogues of specific monks, whereas the Institutes present the specifics of monastic attire, life, and prayer. Not only did the Conferences document the wisdom of the Egyptian ascetics, but it also infused references from the Scriptures into its teaching, including the patience of Job amidst the diabolical warfare that assailed him.[26] This is significant because Job’s diabolical encounter emerges as an example to monastics in their duel with evil and of how to properly engage in it.[27] In his dialogue with an elder named Serapion, Cassian documents the Eight Principal Faults as “gluttony, fornication, avarice,[28] anger, dejection, acedia,[29] vain glory, and pride.”[30] Although the Conferences discusses these spirits amidst the counsels of the Egyptian monks, it is the Institutes that discusses each of these demons in detail.[31]

Of the eight principal spirits or faults, dejection and acedia most effectively link the monastic world with today’s psychological suffering. The spirit or demon of dejection is described as one that attacks at random, and prevents the monk from having gladness of heart.[32] It makes the monk impatient and rough with the brethren and causes him to feel angry, crushing and overwhelming him with despair.[33] Cassian also locates the origin of dejection as being from “previous anger” or a previous “lack of gain that has not been realized.”[34] The monk isolates himself and no longer desires to engage in discourse with others, so that Cassian labels dejection the “gall of bitterness that is in possession of every corner of their heart.”[35] Interestingly, Cassian discusses how this demonic spirit is not necessarily a result of the actions of others, but actions of the self. Cassian elaborates that one in this state should not isolate himself, but rather continue to interact with his fellow monastic brethren. This in itself is a remedy against this spirit.[36] 

The beginning of healing, according to Cassian, is correcting one’s faults, which leads the monk to find peace. In its extreme form, the demon of dejection can lead one to despair of salvation. This is the demon that led to Cain’s lack of repentance[37] and Judas’ suicide.[38] However, Cassian goes on to discuss that some dejection is acceptable and therapeutic. This is the sorrow that leads an individual to penitence for sin.[39] Finally, he ends the relevant chapter by noting that the way to terminate devilish dejection is spiritual meditation, and keeping the mind occupied with the hope of the future. In examining this chapter of Cassian’s work, clear symptoms emerge, as well as treatment modalities for what is considered depression in the modern world.

In Book X of the Institutes, Cassian begins to describe accidie, or acedia, known as the “midday demon,”[40] as Evagrius had also done, although in more detail in specific relation to the emotions.[41] While similar to the demon of dejection, acedia consists of the added features of apathy, sluggishness, sloth, and irritability. In naming acedia the “midday demon,” Cassian posits that these demonic attacks often occur around the sixth hour and seize the monk. Carelessness and anxiousness are the main components of acedia, as well as frequent complaining.[42] The monk looks anxiously and often sighs at his other brethren. There are also moments where he is idle and useless for spiritual work. Cassian notes that sometimes the midday demon can manifest in different forms: sometimes one may isolate more, and in other times one may become a busy-body and seek consolation from others — an action which Cassian describes as entanglement in secular business.[43] 

Manual labor and work, Cassian suggests, are a good remedy to the midday demon of acedia. One suffering from this demon should employ the words of Paul the Apostle: “if anyone will not work, neither shall he eat.”[44] Cassian speculates that the West is void of monasteries and monks specifically because of idleness and acedia. Acedia is, in his mind, a direct result of idleness: “a monk who works is attacked by one devil; but an idler is tormented by countless spirits.”[45] Babai, one of the Syriac writers and Fathers, also mentions this demon when he states: “beware of the impulses of the body when it is at rest, and do not let evil thoughts take up residence in your heart.”[46] Cassian concludes that manual work and direct confrontation of acedia will lead to healing.[47] Fleeing from acedia only makes the demonic attack worse.

Examining the demons of dejection and acedia, one sees Cassian describing elements of depression and anxiety through the lens of Egyptian monasticism well before these terms came to have clinical significance. Depression is medically known as Major Depressive Disorder. Criteria for this disorder include many similarities to the aforementioned symptoms of the demon of dejection: feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and emptiness are oftentimes subjectively relayed by individuals with depression;[48] there is also a decreased interest in pleasure and interaction with others.[49] The famous author William Styron says about depression: “the weather of depression is unmodulated, its light a brownout.”[50] Cassian mentioned that the Egyptian monks suffering from dejection oftentimes isolated from their fellow brethren, and described symptoms very closely aligned with depression according to its modern interpretation. Moreover, as the origin of depression is sometimes linked to triggering and stressful events,[51] Cassian similarly recognized that often, anger and the lack of accomplishing a goal can lead to the demon of dejection. Anger and failure are, after all, often linked to stressful situations in an individual’s life.

Regrettably, the majority of suicides are committed by individuals with depression.[52] The end result of the demon of dejection is salvific despair; Cassian calls to mind the suicide of Judas, comparatively. In Cassian’s works, the ways prescribed to combat the demon of dejection are similar to those used to treat today’s clinical depression. Cassian described interaction with the fellow monks and also encountering one’s faults directly as a treatment to this demonic attack. Likewise, in the field of psychiatry, cognitive therapy and behavioral therapy seek to aid the patient in recognizing self-inflicted negative thought patterns and addressing negative behaviors, respectively. Group therapy also enables individuals to interact with others who experience similar symptoms to provide a sense of camaraderie. This leads the individual to correct negative thoughts of the self and to become more functional and interactive with others in society.[53]

Acedia is similar to depression, anxiety, or a combination of both. Generalized Anxiety Disorder is a chronic anxiety disorder which consists of excessive worry manifesting in various symptoms such as restlessness, fatigue, difficulty concentrating, and irritability.[54] Cassian mentioned that acedia, the “midday demon,” often causes these symptoms. Sometimes the monk may isolate himself; other times he may frequently complain and be anxious. Often in anxiety and depression, one may be crippled and unable to interact socially. This leads them to a decrease in function in their everyday lives, an action identified also by Cassian in the monk struggling with this demon. Abba Moses tells Cassian that one must not flee from or suppress this demon, but rather to attack it straightaway.[55] Likewise, in psychodynamic psychotherapy, the concept of repression is addressed.[56] Repression is a defense mechanism utilized by many to avoid psychological distress by “keeping it away,” creating space between the emotion and the individual.[57] But often, repression can worsen psychological distress and cause it to linger, and thus fails to correct the root cause of the illness. Essentially, Cassian writes that one must not use repression in fighting this demon, but to attack it head-on, and to utilize manual labor as a means to keep oneself busy. Here we see Cassian identifying psychological defense mechanisms that are yet to be fully defined during his time. It is through the behavioral therapy discussed above, in relation to dejection, that we see an individual being enabled to move from idleness to committing to a goal, such as manual or professional work, which can assist in the path to healing. It is clear, both through the therapy modalities discussed and in Cassian’s writings, that a commitment to a goal-oriented activity such as physical work can aid an individual by distracting from the anxious thoughts and feelings affecting them.

In comparing the demonic to the psychological, one must realize that spiritual or demonic attacks do not necessarily equate to psychological suffering, and vice versa. The Holy Fathers made a distinction between illnesses caused by demons, and those that are from physiological or psychological origins.[58] However, the problem of suffering and the goal of attaining healing is one and the same for both the diabolical and the psychological. In the Orthodox Church, this healing comes from Christ.[59] In the world of psychology, healing can come through various modalities, such as psychotherapy, medication, and psychosocial support. Although the definition of healing and the means by which to arrive at it may be different, the goal for the monk in Cassian’s writings, and for one struggling with mental illness, is healing. The battle of the thoughts, and spiritual-psychological attacks are not new occurrences. Even in modern monasticism, the attacks of the thoughts are evident, and can affect the monastic in his everyday struggle.[60] 

Cassian provided to the West a unique view of the Egyptian desert. In relaying the struggles of, and demonic attacks encountered by, the monks, Cassian laid the foundations of the principle of overlap between mental health and spiritual health — an interaction that cannot be neglected. Whether today’s mental illnesses are caused by, either wholly or partially, the demonic attacks discussed by Cassian is a complex inquiry requiring further theological and psychological research. What is evidently clear, however, is that the monastic experience, possessing a deep anthropological and spiritual wisdom, ought not be divorced from contemporary social life, self-understanding, and approaches to psychological well-being. Indeed, if one wishes to delve deeper into understanding or treating illnesses such as depression or anxiety — or any other human ailment — they can look to the writings of the monastic fathers and find within them insights that deal with both physical and spiritual wellness in a thoroughly Christian manner. Those who struggle with depression or anxiety, for instance, have as an inspiration and cause of hope the example of the early monastic fathers, who identified, courageously combatted, and successfully overcame these demons by God’s grace and support, and early monastic writings, such as Cassian’s, which teach what the path of healing entails. In learning from the diabolical warfare experienced by the Egyptian monks, one can compare their struggle to these early ascetics and find in them a source of consolation and fellowship, potentially leading them to realize their own healing through the experience and wisdom of those who many centuries earlier, in the Egyptian Desert, suffered like them and emerged victorious over their suffering.

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[1] Columba Stewart. Cassian the Monk. Oxford Studies in Historical Theology. New York: Oxford University Press.1998.5.

[2] Ibid.

[3] Ibid., 9-10. Scetis is the desert that is located West of the Nile, the region is known today as Wadi al-Natrun. 9.

[4] The Temptation of Christ in the Wilderness, for instance, is documented in the synoptic gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke.

[5] Vincent Lampert. The Battle Against Satan and His Demons. Emmaus Road Publishing. 2020. 25.

[6] Ibid., 26. 

[7] Athanasius was the Bishop of Alexandria in 328 CE, and author of the Life of Antony. (Khaled Anatolius. Athanasius. The Early Church Fathers. New York: Routledge. 2004. 1, 24).

[8] Athanasius and William A Clebsch. The Life of Antony and the Letter to Marcellinus. Translated by Robert C Gregg. The Classics of Western Spirituality. New York: Paulist Press. 1980. 34-36.

[9] Ibid.

[10] According to translator E.A. Wallis Budge’s preface, the Paradise of the Fathers was written by Palladius, Jerome, and also included the Life of Antony which was written by Athanasius. Budge translated the Paradise of the Fathers from Syriac. (Paradise of the Holy Fathers Volume One: Preface, 11).

[11] E.A. Wallis Budge. Paradise of the Holy Fathers Volume One and Two. St Shenouda Press: 2009. 217-219.

[12] Evagrius was a fourth-century monk who was a disciple of Gregory of Nazianzus. After living in Jerusalem briefly, Evagrius then fled to the Egyptian desert and became a disciple of Ammonius and the two Macarii (Macarius the Great and Macarius the Alexandrian). Soon becoming a teacher, Evagrius was known in his documenting demonic attacks that encountered the monastics. (Evagrius. Talking Back: A Monastic Handbook for Combating Demons. Translated by David Brakke. Cistercian Studies Series, No. 229. Trappist, Ky.: Cistercian Publications, 2009. 3).

[13] E.A. Wallis Budge. Paradise of the Holy Fathers: Volume One and Two. St Shenouda Press: 2009. 219.

[14] The Rule of Saint Benedict was the monastic rule that was established in the West by Benedict. This system spread throughout Europe and draws upon the writings of John Cassian, Basil, and the Lives of the Fathers. (John Michael Talbot. Blessings of St. Benedict. Collegeville, Minnesota: Liturgical Press. 2011. IX).

[15] Evagrius Pontikus. The Praktikos & Chapters on Prayer. Trans. and Introduction: John Eudes Bamberger. Cistercian Publications: 1972. Preface by J. Leclerq: XIV.

[16] Evagrius, XIV.

[17] Ibid.

[18] Evagrius. Talking Back: A Monastic Handbook for Combating Demons. Translated by David Brakke. Cistercian Studies Series, No. 229. Trappist, Ky.: Cistercian Publications, 2009. 6.

[19] Evagrius Pontikus. The Praktikos & Chapters on Prayer. Trans. and Introduction: John Eudes Bamberger. Cistercian Publications: 1972. Preface by J. Leclerq: xiv.

[20] Columba Stewart. Cassian the Monk. Oxford Studies in Historical Theology. New York: Oxford University Press. 1998. 4.

[21] Ibid., 5.

[22] Ibid., 5.

[23] Ibid., 4.; John Chrysostom was Bishop of Constantinople and was deposed in a controversial synod known as the Synod of the Oak in the early fifth century. The controversy involved Theophilus of Alexandria and an Alexandrian following, as well as a group of Origenist monks from Nitria (Wendy Mayer, Pauline Allen, and John Chrysostom. John Chrysostom. The Early Church Fathers. Taylor and Francis Group. London: Routledge, 2000. doi:10.4324/9780203029039. 10).

[24] Stewart, 8.

[25] These two writings are known colloquially as the Conferences and the Institutes, respectively, and will be written as such throughout the paper.

[26] John Cassian. The Conferences of the Desert Fathers, trans. Rev. Edgar C.S. Gibson. Aeterna Press. 2015. Kindle. Chapter IX: 2000.

[27] Christopher J. Kelly. Cassian's Conferences: Scriptural Interpretation and the Monastic Ideal. Ashgate New Critical Thinking in Religion, Theology, and Biblical Studies. London: Routledge. 2016. X.

[28] Avarice is also known as the love of money.

[29] Acedia is also known as accidie or listlessness.

[30] John Cassian. The Conferences of the Desert Fathers, trans. Rev. Edgar C.S. Gibson. Aeterna Press. 2015. Kindle.1499.

[31] Throughout his writings, Cassian interchangeably uses demons, vices, faults, and spirits as the same thing. As mentioned earlier in the paper, Cassian moved slightly away from utilizing foreign demonic references in order to try to be more practical and personal in his approach in relaying a cosmic reality in spiritually applicable ways.

[32] John Cassian. The Twelve Books on the Institutes of the Coenobia and the Remedies for the Eight Principle Faults, trans. Rev. Edgar C.S. Gibson. Aeterna Press. 2015. Kindle. Book IX: Of the Spirit of Dejection: 2007.

[33] Ibid., Chapter I: 2014.

[34] Ibid., Chapter IV: 2030.

[35] Ibid.

[36] Ibid., Chapter VII: 2046.

[37] Genesis 4:1-18 (OSB)

[38] Matthew 27:3-5 (OSB)

[39] John Cassian. The Twelve Books on the Institutes of the Coenobia and the Remedies for the Eight Principle Faults, trans. Rev. Edgar C.S. Gibson. Aeterna Press. 2015. Kindle. Book IX: Of the Spirit of Dejection: Chapter X: 2007.

[40] John Cassian. The Twelve Books on the Institutes of the Coenobia and the Remedies for the Eight Principle Faults, trans. Rev. Edgar C.S. Gibson. Aeterna Press. Kindle. 2015. Book X: Of the Spirit of Accidie: Chapter I: 2007.

[41] Ryan Lamothe. “An Analysis of Acedia.” Pastoral Psychology 56, no. 1 (2007) 15–30. doi:10.1007/s11089-007-0096-8. 17.

[42] John Cassian. The Twelve Books on the Institutes of the Coenobia and the Remedies for the Eight Principle Faults, trans. Rev. Edgar C.S. Gibson. Aeterna Press. Kindle. 2015. Book X: Of the Spirit of Accidie: Chapter II: 2101.

[43] Ibid., Book X: Of the Spirit of Accidie: Chapter 3: 2117. 

[44] II Thessalonians 3:10 (OSB)

[45] John Cassian. The Twelve Books on the Institutes of the Coenobia and the Remedies for the Eight Principle Faults, trans. Rev. Edgar C.S. Gibson. Aeterna Press. Kindle. Book X: Of the Spirit of Accidie: Chapter XXIII: 2007.

[46] Sebastian P. Brock. The Syriac Fathers on Prayer and the Spiritual Life. Kalamazoo, Mich: Cistercian Publications, 1987. Chapter VII: 151

[47] John Cassian. The Twelve Books on the Institutes of the Coenobia and the Remedies for the Eight Principle Faults, trans. Rev. Edgar C.S. Gibson. Aeterna Press. Kindle. Book X: Of the Spirit of Accidie: Chapter XXV: 2359.

[48] B.J. Sadock. V. A. Sadock, & P. Ruiz. Kaplan & Sadock's Synopsis of Psychiatry: Behavioral Sciences/Clinical Psychiatry (Eleventh edition.). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer. 2015. 357.

[49] Ibid.

[50] William Styron. Darkness Visible: A Memoir of Madness. New York: Random House, 1990. 19.

[51] Sadock, 354.

[52] Sadock, 764.

[53] Ibid., 372-373.

[54] Ibid., 409.

[55] John Cassian. The Twelve Books on the Institutes of the Coenobia and the Remedies for the Eight Principle Faults, trans. Rev. Edgar C.S. Gibson. Aeterna Press. Kindle. Book X: Of the Spirit of Accidie: Chapter XXV: 2359.

[56] Nancy McWilliams. Psychoanalytic Diagnosis: Understanding Personality Structure in the Clinical Process. New York: The Guilford Press, Second Edition. 2011. Print. 127.

[57] McWilliams, 127.

[58] Razvan Brudiu. Human Suffering and Its Healing According to Jean-Claude Larchet. European Journal of Science and Theology, September 2012, Vol.8, Supplement 2, 284-285.

[59] Ibid., 287.

[60] Anna Smiljanic. Our Thoughts Determine Our Lives: The Life and Teachings of Elder Thaddeus of Vitovnica. Platina, CA: Saint Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, 2009. 29. 

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Bibliography

Primary Sources

• Athanasius, and William A Clebsch. The Life of Antony and the Letter to Marcellinus. Trans. Robert C Gregg. The Classics of Western Spirituality. New York: Paulist Press. 1980.

• Budge, Wallis. Paradise of the Holy Fathers Volume One and Two. St Shenouda Press. 2009.

• Cassian, John. The Conferences of the Desert Fathers, trans. Rev. Edgar C.S. Gibson. Aeterna Press. 2015. Kindle.

• Cassian, John. The Twelve Books on the Institutes of the Coenobia and the Remedies for the Eight Principle Faults, trans. Rev. Edgar C.S. Gibson. Aeterna Press. 2015. Kindle.

• Evagrius. Talking Back: A Monastic Handbook for Combating Demons. Translated by David Brakke. Cistercian Studies Series, No. 229. Trappist, Ky.: Cistercian Publications. 2009.

• Ponticus, Evagrius. The Praktikos & Chapters on Prayer. Trans. John Eudes Bamberger. Cistercian Publications. 1972.

• Sadock, B. J., Sadock, V. A., & Ruiz, P. Kaplan & Sadock's Synopsis of Psychiatry: Behavioral Sciences/Clinical Psychiatry (Eleventh edition.). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer. 2015.

Secondary Sources

• Anatolios, Khaled. Athanasius. The Early Church Fathers. New York: Routledge. 2004.

• Brock, Sebastian P. The Syriac Fathers on Prayer and the Spiritual Life. Kalamazoo, Mich: Cistercian Publications. 1987.

• Brudiu, Razvan. Human Suffering and Its Healing According to Jean-Claude Larchet. European Journal of Science and Theology, September 2012. Vol.8, Supplement 2, 281-287.

• Jones, Christopher D. “The Problem of Acedia in Eastern Orthodox Morality.” Studies in Christian Ethics 33. 2020. (3): 336–51. doi:10.1177/0953946819847652.

• Kelly, Christopher J. Cassian's Conferences: Scriptural Interpretation and the Monastic Ideal. Ashgate New Critical Thinking in Religion, Theology, and Biblical Studies. London: Routledge. 2016.

• LaMothe, Ryan. “An Analysis of Acedia.” Pastoral Psychology 56, no. 1 (2007): 15–30. doi:10.1007/s11089-007-0096-8.

• Lampert, Vincent. The Battle Against Satan and His Demons. Emmaus Road Publishing 1468. Parkview Circle Steubenville, Ohio : 2020. Kindle.

• Mayer, Wendy, Pauline Allen, and John Chrysostom. John Chrysostom. The Early Church Fathers. Taylor and Francis Group. London: Routledge, 2000. doi:10.4324/9780203029039.

• McWilliams, Nancy. Psychoanalytic Diagnosis: Understanding Personality Structure in the Clinical Process. New York: The Guilford Press, Second Edition. 2011. Print.

• Smiljanic, Anna (trans). Our Thoughts Determine Our Lives: The Life and Teachings of Elder Thaddeus of Vitovnica. Platina, CA: Saint Herman of Alaska Brotherhood. 2009.

• Stewart, Columba. Cassian the Monk. Oxford Studies in Historical Theology. New York: Oxford University Press. 1998.

• Styron, William. Darkness Visible: A Memoir of Madness. New York: Random House. 1990.

• Talbot, John Michael. Blessings of St. Benedict. Collegeville, Minnesota: Liturgical Press. 2011.

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Abraham Ghattas is a Coptic Orthodox Christian who practices psychiatry in Houston, Texas. He holds a bachelor's degree in Psychology with a concentration in Behavioral Neuroscience, as well as a minor degree in Religious Studies from Purdue University. He received his DO medical degree from the Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine. He is board certified in Psychiatry and works as a Staff Psychiatrist at Michael E. DeBakey VA Medical Center in Houston, TX. He is also on faculty at Baylor University College of Medicine as an Assistant Professor of Psychiatry. He is a member of the American Association of Christian Counselors, and holds a Certificate in Early Christian Studies from St. Athanasius and St. Cyril Theological School (ACTS) in California. He has lectured on Crisis Intervention and Trauma Counseling as part of the Family Ministry Program. He has also lectured on anxiety, depression, substance use, development, and the overlap of mental health and Orthodox spirituality to youth, adolescents, servants, adults, and parents. He enjoys spirituality, Philosophy, Patristics, Christology, and Church History.

Cover Art: Lelio Orsi, The Temptation of St. Anthony, 1570s.

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